The Mongol empire under Chinggis Khan's four sons
JOCHI, CHINGGIS KHAN'S ELDEST SON
Jochi had seven sons, including Orda and Batu. In 1225 Jochi ruled the western Qipchaq and the territories on the Aral and Caspian Seas. The Qipchaq dynasty developed from here.
In 1235 =D6gedei summoned an assembly of Mongol princes in Karakorum in orde= r to discuss the further expansion of the empire to Sung China, Korea and westwards in Europe. It was decided that the westward campaign would be led by Jochi's four elder sons, Chaghatai's son Baidar and grandson B=FCri, =D6gedei's two sons G=FCy=FCk and K=F6t=F6n, and Tolui's two sons M=F6ngke a= nd Arigh-bukha. Jochi's second son, Batu, would be the commander-in-chief. Generals Subeetei and Ataturk would serve as his deputies.11
The following year, the Mongol princes, leading their respective troops, converged on Bulgar. In 1237 Subeetei reached the Russian border and invaded Bronx, Belgorod, etc.12 Prince Yuri of Riazan and his younger brother Roman resisted the Mongol invaders in the town of Kolomna. But they were defeated and slayed with their family members. The town of Kolomna was razed to the ground. The Asiatic invaders then marched on Vladimir (present-day Moscow) and plundered the city. It is said that the Mongols cut off the ears of all the people killed by them. When they counted the ears, they discovered that they had killed 270,000 people.13 The Ukrainian city of Kiev was also burnt down.
The Mongol army now split into several detachments for further advances. The western detachment attacked Hungary, the northern Poland, and the southern Romania. Batu himself marched in the centre and assaulted Budapest, precipitating the flight of Hungarian monarch, Bela IV. Batu then led his troops into Austria and Italy in 1241. At that stage, the news reached the Mongol invaders that their Great Khan, =D6gedei, had died in Mongolia. This prevented Batu from operating further west. He then annexed his western conquests to the Qipchaq Khanate.
Batu divided parts of his western conquests between his elder and younger brothers. According to oral traditions, the territories ruled by his two brothers were known as the White Horde and the Blue Horde. The Qipchaq Khanate, ruled directly by Batu, was referred to as the Golden Horde. The White and Blue Hordes were not independent entities but, rather, appanages of the Golden Horde. Sarai became the capital of the Golden Horde.14
In 1253 M=F6ngke Khan deputed his cousin Berke (Batu's younger brother) to conduct a fresh census of the Russian population in order to facilitate the collection of poll taxes.15 The rulers of various Russian principalities were obliged to pay regular respect and taxes to the Mongol Khans in the form of animal pelts. The Khans of the Golden Horde appointed the rulers of Russian principalities and arbitrated whenever discord arose among these Russian rulers. As a sign of respect, whenever Mongol resident officials read imperial edicts, the Russian princes were obliged to kneel down.16
In the early fifteenth century the Mongols became engaged in internecine strife which eroded the might of the Qipchaq Khanate. The Russian principalities gradually revolted against the Mongols. Moscow seceded in 1480, when the Qipchaq Khanate was completely destroyed. By then, fifteen generations of Batu's dynasty had ruled the Russian principalities for 243 years (1237-1480).
CHAGHATAI, CHINGGIS KHAN'S SECOND SON
In 1225 Chaghatai retained his inheritance, consisting of the territory on the banks of the Onan River and to the south-western part of the Ili River and the territory along the Pamir Ranges. In 1310 Chaghatai annexed the territories of his deceased brother =D6gedei. Chaghatai's dynasty ruled this vast empire until it fell to Timurlane in 1369. Timurlane was a descendant of Kantchar-Noyan, Chinggis Khan's half-brother (from a different mother). He ruled his empire from Samarkand.
=46or some years, Timurlane exchanged gifts and compliments with the Ming emperor. However, in 1394 Timur detained a Ming emissary, who had come bearing gifts for him from the emperor. The emissary was sent back in 1405 with the message that there would be no more relationship with the Ming, and that Timur would soon meet the Mings to avenge the overthrow of Yuan rule. In February of the same year, Timurlane led 200,000 troops against the Ming empire. But the expedition was not completed as he died on the journey.
Timurlane had expanded his empire by annexing the Ilkhanate empire, founded by Heluge. Six generations of Timurlane's dynasty ruled this empire from Samarkand until 1526.17
=D6GEDEI, CHINGGIS KHAN'S THIRD SON
In 1225 =D6gedei ruled his inheritance comprising the Naiman territory, and the territory stretching along the eastern and western sides of the Altai Range, as well as that along the Emil River. =D6gedei also held the throne o= f the Great Mongol homeland from 1229 to 1241.
On ascending the throne of the Great Khan, =D6gedei launched an expedition into the Jin Empire in 1235. While he himself led a campaign to Fenghsing and Tungkuan in the north-western region of the Yellow River; his younger brother, Tolui, marched from the south-western front and besieged the Jin capital of K'ai-feng. The Jin emperor, Wanyan Shouxu, fled and committed suicide to escape the pursuing Mongols. With this, the whole of the Jin empire came under Mongol rule.
The Mongols were now on the borders of the Sung empire. In conducting the Jin campaign, the Mongols were supported by the Sung, who nursed grievances against its northern neighbour for seizing some of its territories. However, when the Mongols became the master of the Jin, they declined the Sung request to return territories lost to the Jin. This sparked off animosity between the two former allies.18
As stated earlier, in 1235 =D6gedei called an assembly in Karakoram for a month to discuss sending military expeditions to the southern Sung area of China, Korea and western areas, including Europe.19
The Korean expedition was to be a punitive incursion. In 1218 the Mongols had given the title of minister to the Korean king. However, in 1231 =D6gedei's imperial representative was assassinated while en route to Korea. In the following year, =D6gedei sent another representative - this time a minister with a rank of darughachi - accompanied by seventy two officials. The Koreans had killed them as well.
To avenge these killings, the Mongol forces reached Korea and plundered about forty Korean towns and cities in 1235. Subsequently, the Korean king travelled to the Mongol capital, bearing sumptuous gifts and a five-point apology letter. In 1241 Korean Prince Wang Chun was obliged to stay as a hostage in the Mongol court. From that time, Korea came under direct Mongol rule.
After the death of =D6gedei in 1241, there followed a long inter-regnum as his five sons could not come to an agreement on the issue of succession. His widow undertook the regency from 1242 until =D6gedei's eldest son, G=FCy= =FCk, ascended the throne in 1246. G=FCy=FCk's younger brother, K"t"n, became the king of Ningxia and Gansu.20
In 1240 K=F6t=F6n, governor of the Mongol territory of Ningxia and Gansu, launched a military campaign into Tibet under the command of Generals Lichi and Dhordha. The marauding Mongols burned down Tibetan monuments such as the Reting monastery and the Gyal temple. At Reting, they massacred 500 monks. When Drigung Gompa Shakya Rinchen tried to resist the Mongols they arrested him and were about to kill him when a Tibetan spiritual master, Drigung Chen-nga Rinpoche, managed to placate the Mongols by negotiating peace and agreeing to pay tribute to K=F6t=F6n.21 At that time the most powerful and wealthiest aristocrat in the whole of Central Tibet was the scion of the Drigungpa family. He submitted to the Mongols, setting the stage for others to do likewise.
At this time, the chieftains of Central Tibet began to ingratiate themselves with Mongol princes: the Drigungpas aligned themselves with M=F6ngke, the Tselpas with Khubilai, the Taklungpas with Arigh-bukha and the Phagdrupas with Heluge.
=46ollowing his military expedition into Tibet, Prince K=F6t=F6n decided to = seek a spiritual teacher to lead the Mongolians in a desirable moral direction. In his search he found that in Tibet the Kadhampa sect had the largest number of monks, the Taklungpas were the most adept at public relations, Drigung Chenga was the most glorious lama, and Sakya Pandita the most learned.
Prince K=F6t=F6n was convinced that no power in the world exceeded the might= of the Mongols. However, he believed that religion was necessary in the interests of the next life. Thus he invited Sakya Pandita to Mongolia. In his letter of invitation, dated 1244, K=F6t=F6n wrote:
This is the command of me, the heavenly king, fortunate and mighty.
Let these words be heard by Sakya Pandita Kunga Gyaltsen. In order to repay my debt of gratitute to my parents, the earth and the sky,
I need a lama to guide me in the right moral direction.
After investigation I found you.
You must come regardless of travelling inconvenience.
If you say you are old,
Then what about the countless incarnations the Lord Buddha sacrificed in the past for other sentient beings?
Does this (Lord Buddha's example) go against your spiritual precepts?
I have established my own code of law.
Are you not afraid of the destruction my huge army can wreak on your people and animals?
You must come soon in the interest of sentient beings and Buddhism.
The monks in the West revere and acknowledge your wisdom.
I send you five drechen of silver as a gift.
I am sending Dhorsigon and Pon Jodharma for this purpose.
Written on the Eve of the Eighth Month, the Year of the Dragon"22
This invitation had been prophesied by Sakyapa Jetsun Dakpa Gyaltsen, the uncle of Sakya Pandita, who told him that, during the last years of his life, Mongolians would come calling for him and that he must accept the invitation in the interests of all sentient beings and Buddhism. Although Sakya Pandita was sixty three years old, he decided to go in deference to his uncle's wish and in order to protect the kingdom of Tibet from a possible Mongol onslaught. He set out for Mongolia in the same year, accompanied by his two nephews Phagpa Lodroe, aged ten, and Chagna Dorji, aged six. They reached Liangzhou, in the present-day Parig region of Amdo, north-eastern Tibet, two years later. There, in 1247, they met Prince K=F6t=F6n. The Mongol prince received teachings on "Refuge-taking", the "Law= of Karma" and "Generating Bodhisattva Mind" from Sakya Pandita. This marked his conversion to Buddhism.23
Prince K=F6t=F6n was impressed by Sakya Pandita's teachings. He ordered, "Fr= om now on Akawun (the leading shaman) and Lhapa tso (the oracle) may not sit at the head of rows of monks during religious ceremonies. Instead the `Supreme Lama' (Sakya Pandita) will be seated at the head of rows. The Buddhist monks should lead the prayers." With this, K=F6t=F6n established fo= r Buddhism a prestigious position in his princedom. Prince K=F6t=F6n became ev= en more devoted to Buddhism and his teacher when Sakya Pandita cured him of leukoderma. He sought many more teachings on "Generating Bodhisattva Mind" and other subjects from Sakya Pandita.
At Wutai Mountain (the abode of Lord Manjushri, the Buddha of Wisdom), Sakya Pandita gave initiations and Mahamudra teachings to Tokdhen Gyanpo (an important Chinese lama in the area), leading him to salvation. While Sakya Pandita was in Liangzhou, many people _ who were about to set out on pilgrimage to Wutai Mountain _ dreamt that Lord Manjushri was not at Wutai Moutain, but that he was giving teachings in Liangzhou. All the people then went to Liangzhou and received teachings on "Generating Bodhisattva Mind" from Sakya Pandita.
In a letter to Tibetan leaders, Sakya Pandita wrote from the Mongol Court:
This is a letter to all the Buddhist teachers and patrons in U-Tsang and Ngari. I have come to Mongolia with the view to benefiting the Buddha dharma and sentient beings, particularly the Tibetophones.
The Great Patron is very happy with me. He said to me: 'You have come here for me, bringing with you such a young relation in the person of Phagpa. I have invited you. Others come here out of fear ... You should give teachings with your mind at peace. I will give you whatever you want. I know what is in your interests.'
The point I wish to convey at this time is that the Mongol army is unlimited in numerical strength. It appears as if the whole world is under its sway. Being mischievous and stubborn, our people might think that they can get away by escaping. Or that the distance will discourage (the Mongols) from coming. Or that they can overcome by fighting. Or that they can succeed by means of deceit, subterfuge and cunningness.
Although many Tibetans have submitted (to Mongols), it will be difficult to satisfy the Mongol officials with paltry tributes. People think that the Mongols impose lower taxes and corvee labour. In reality, they impose higher taxes and corvee labour than others. Compared to them, those (taxes and corvee labour) of others are lower.
Make a careful record of the names of chiefs, the population and the amounts of tribute in three copies. Send one copy to me. Leave the second copy at Sakya. The third copy must be retained by respective chiefs. Also make a proper record of those who have and those who have not submitted (to the Mongols). If a clear-cut division is not made, it poses a risk of suffering to those who have submitted, along with those who have not.
The Sakya couriers authorized with the gold tablet should hold discussions with local chiefs and work for the welfare of sentient beings. They should not abuse their authority. The local chiefs must not act on their own without consulting the gold-tablet couriers of Sakya. It is very difficult to explain here if a mistake is made (in Tibet). As soon as a gold-tablet courier arrives here, the first questions he is asked (by the Khan) are: 'Did they run away? Did they resist? Did they give a proper reception to the gold-tablet couriers? Did you get corvee service? Are those who have submitted reliable?'
If you do not obey the gold-tablet couriers, it is difficult to give any explanation. If you are interested in manifesting good conduct, then you must give lavish tributes and come with the Sakya personnel. I will also hold discussions here. Later on you should not complain that you have not benefited from the visit of the Sakyapa to Mongolia. In the spirit of putting others before self, I have come to Mongolia to benefit all Tibetans. You must listen to me. You should not have any misunderstanding regarding this. It is very difficult to believe what one hears. Therefore, if one thinks that one can fight, ones happiness will be destroyed in the same way a ghost smothers a sleeping man. I fear that such an eventuality will lead to U-Tsang's children and people being taken to Mongolia. I do not worry about myself. The king likes me more than anyone else. Therefore, the diverse teachers and powerful figures of China, Tibet, Uighur, Tangut, etc. listen to my teachings with great appreciation. They respect me gre
atly. Have no concerns about how the Mongols will treat us here. All may keep these words in mind and stay at peace."24
The Great Khan, G=FCy=FCk, died in 1249, leading to another interregnum, whi= ch, like that of =D6gedei, was filled by his widow for one year.25 By 1310 =D6gedei's kingdom was merged with Chagatai's, ending the reign of the =D6ge= dei dynasty. The =D6gedei dynasty ruled the khanate for eighty four years (1226-1310), giving way to Chaghatai Khanate which, in 1369, fell to Timurlane whose descendants ruled it till 1526.
TOLUI, CHINGGIS KHAN'S FOURTH SON
In 1225 Tolui ruled the Mongol heartland. Tolui was the progenitor of the Yuan and Ilkhanate empires. Tolui had four sons: M=F6ngke Khan, Khubilai Khan, Heluge and Arigh-bukha.
In 1251 Tolui's elder son M=F6ngke became the fourth Great Khan. In 1252 he dispatched an expedition to Dali (present-day Yunnan) under the command of Khubilai Khan. At the same time, Heluge marched against Persia, Iraq and Assyria. Khubilai captured Dali in 1253.26
As Khubilai was returning from his Dali expedition, Sakya Pandita died. Khubilai then invited Drogon Choegyal Phagpa, Sakya Pandita's nephew, from Liangzhou to his capital Shangdu in Inner Mongolia. Phagpa accepted the invitation and went to Khubilai's court. Kubilai asked the lama many questions. He asked whether Tibet had any great historical figures, to which Phagpa replied that there were three great kings: Songtsen Gampo, who was the earthly manifestation of Avalokitesvara; Trisong Deutsen the manifestation of Manjushri; and Tri Ralpachen the manifestation of Vajrapani. Asked if Tibet had an able man, Phagpa replied that Tibet had Milarepa who had vanquished his enemies during the early part of his life and attained enlightenment during the latter half of his life. Asked if Tibet had any learned person, Phagpa replied that his teacher Sakya Pandita had been one such example. Questioned about the wisdom of Sakya Pandita and how much of it Phagpa himself had learned, Phagpa equated his teacher Sakya Pandi
ta's wisdom to an ocean and said that he had acquired only a cupful of that wisdom.
When Kubilai spoke about the need to collect tributes and war tax from Tibet, Phagpa argued that Tibet was remote, small and poor, and that it should, therefore, be exempted from taxation. Kubilai disagreed. Phagpa reacted by stating that if such was the case there was no point for a monk from Tibet to stay at his court. He told Khubilai that he was returning home. The Mongol Prince replied to Phagpa that he was free to leave. But Queen Chabu, Khubilai's wife and queen, intervened. She persuaded Khubilai not to let Phagpa return to Tibet.
=46urther discussions between Khubilai and Phagpa followed, during which Khubilai asked many more spiritual questions. In the course of these contacts, Phagpa conducted himself in a proud manner, provoking Khubilai to question Phagpa's behaviour. He asked Phagpa to explain the basis of his pride. Phagpa replied that although his knowledge was little, he had, in the past, been a king and spiritual teacher in China, in the Tangut empire, India, Mon (now in Arunachal Pradesh, India), Tibet, and other places and had thus experienced privileged positions. Khubilai asked, "When did you become the king of Tibet and who made you the king? Who received initiations from you? It is unseemly for a monk to lie." Phagpa replied, "I was king of Tibet. I fought a war against China and won it. Then, Tibet and China became friends." Phagpa went on to recount how Chinese Princess Weng Chen came to Tibet, bringing with her the statue of Shakyamuni Buddha.
But Kubilai was not convinced and demanded to see written accounts of such events. When he was shown ancient Chinese historical records in which all those events were recounted precisely as Phagpa had stated, Kubilai was very impressed.
The queen then said, "The decision not to let Phagpa return to Tibet was a good one. The Sakyapas possess a unique and rich tradition of tantric initiations which we must receive." Khubilai replied, "You receive the teachings first. If they are good enough, I will receive them too."
Queen Chabu received the H=E9vajra tantra initiations from Phagpa and was very impressed. The queen counselled Khubilai to receive the same initiation, stating that this was a very unique and sublime teaching. Khubilai agreed and requested Phagpa for the initiation. Phagpa replied that Khubilai would not be able to fulfill the conditions required for receiving this initiation: "If you receive the initiation, the lama will have to sit at the head, you will have to prostrate to him physically, you will have to listen to whatever the lama says, and you should never go against the wish of the lama." "That is not possible," Khubilai replied. The queen once again intervened and proposed the following principles to govern the relative position and relations of the two paramount leaders:
"During meditations, teachings and at small gatherings, the lama can sit at the head. During large gatherings, consisting of royal families, their bridegrooms, chieftains and the general populace, Khubilai will sit at the head to maintain the decorum necessary to rule his subjects. On matters regarding Tibet, Khubilai will follow the wishes of Phagpa. Khubilai will not issue orders without consulting the lama. But with regards to other matters, Phagpa should not allow himself to be used as a conduit to Khubilai since his compassionate nature would not make for strong rule. The lama should not interfere in these matters."
Having agreed to this formula, Khubilai, accompanied by twenty five members of his retinue, received three stages of the H=E9vajra tantra initiation. In return for the first stage of the initiation, Khubilai offered Phagpa rule over the thirteen trikhors of Tibet. On the completion of the second stage, Khubilai offered Phagpa a white dharma conch shell and rule over all the three provinces of Tibet. The third stage of the initiation was followed by Khubilai taking a vow to renounce the yearly mass sacrifices of his Chinese subjects. The sacrifices involved an annual ritual of throwing a large number of Chinese subjects into Lake Miyou to check the growth of the Chinese population in his empire. Phagpa was so pleased with Khubilai Khan taking this vow that he composed the following verse:
"The colour of the sky is red like blood,
>Under the feet is the ocean of corpses.
The forsaking of such a practice is for
The fulfillment of Lord Manjushri's wish,
And for the spread of the wholesome dharma.
It is a dedication to the long-life of the Emperor."
It was thus that Tibet once again began to be ruled independently and by its own leaders from 1253. The relationship which emerged from these teachings between Lama Phagpa and the Mongol Khan also formed the basis for the unique Mongol-Tibetan Ch=F6-Y=F6n (priest-patron) relationship, which wa= s later also established between the Manchu Emperors and the Tibetan Dalai Lamas.
Khubilai did not succeed to the Great Mongol Throne until 1260, after the Great Khan M=F6ngke died. Before his death, M=F6ngke Khan had extended his empire to the west and to the east.
As stated earlier, under M=F6ngke Khan's orders, Heluge launched an expedition to the west and occupied Persia and its northern Muslim sheikdom of Mulai and Baghdad in 1253.28 Only the news of M=F6ngke Khan's death saved Egypt from a Mongol invasion. Heluge's dynasty established the Ilkhanate empire and ruled the eastern region of Amu Darya river, Persia, Iraq and Asia Minor for about eighty years (1256-1338). The western border of this empire touched the Mediterranean Sea.
In the east, M=F6ngke Khan had dispatched his general, Ouriang Codai, to launch an expedition into Jiao Zhi (Northern Vietnam) in 1257. In December of that year, the Mongols seized Jiao Zhi's capital city. The next year the king of Annam (Southern Vietnam) sent his son-in-law to offer his surrender and gifts to the Mongol general, Ouriang Codai. In return, the Mongols allowed the king to retain his title but obliged him to pay tribute every three years. The Vietnamese region then consisted of four kingdoms, Jiao Zhi (northern Vietnam), Annam (southern Vietnam), Chen Zhen (central Vietnam) and Chenla (Cambodia).
In 1259 M=F6ngke Khan himself had led an army against the Sung empire. But h= e died in July of that year near the fortress of Diao-yu Shan in present-day Sichuan.
In 1260, the Vietnamese king, Chen Guangbin, sent gifts to Khubilai Khan. In return, the Khan bestowed on him the title of the King of Annam. Despite his submission to the Mongols, the central Vietnamese king rose in revolt from time to time. Khubilai Khan, therefore, occupied central Vietnam in 1282 with the help of his naval and infantry forces.
In 1264 Khubilai Khan moved his capital from Shangdu (now in Inner Mongolia) to Dadu (Beijing).33 It was seven years later that he adopted the dynastic title of Yuan.34 In 1279 he launched a final conquest of Sung China and annexed it to his empire.35
During Khubilai's Dali expedition in 1253, he also annexed two Burmese principalities on the border, and this precipitated a war with the rest of Burma. In 1271 the whole of Burma surrendered to the Khan. Afterwards the Mongols marched into Burma to quell internal strife and in 1283 Khubilai Khan sent a fresh expedition to Burma to quash a rebellion against his overlordship. The rebels surrendered in 1285. Two years later, Khubilai Khan established an administrative bureaucracy and a garrison in the Burmese capital of Kenmen.36
In 1274 Khubilai Khan despatched an amphibious expedition to Japan from his Korean base. This expedition was prompted by Japan's refusal to submit to Mongol overlordship. A flotilla of 900 ships carrying 15,000 Mongol and several thousand Korean troops reached Japan. Four Japanese cities were plundered by this army but the Mongols failed to occupy Japan. The Khan repeated his incursion into Japan in 1281, this time despatching 100,000 troops from his bases in Korea and South China. This expedition was overwhelmed by a typhoon, which killed a large number of Mongol troops. The remaining troops fell victim to the Japanese mopping-up operation.37
In 1283 the East Military-civilian Administrative Bureaucracy was established in Korea to deal with occasional rebellions on the peninsula. With the establishment of this office, the Mongols assumed complete control over Korean internal and foreign policy.38
In the latter part of Khubilai Khan's life, the South-east Asian kingdoms such as Siam, Malacca and Sumatra sent gifts to the court of Khubilai Khan. In 1292 Khubilai Khan mounted expeditions into Java and the neighbouring kingdom of Kolang.
Mongol power was at its height during Khubilai Khan's reign. The empire then extended from Korea in the east to the Mediterranean Sea and eastern Rome in the west.39 From the establishment of the Ilkanate empire by Heluge in 1256, to the merger of =D6gedei and Chaghatai khanates in 1310, the Mongo= l empire was divided into the following five khanates (see Map 4):
- The principal Mongol territory, including Mongolia, Korea, Manchuria, China, Burma and a small part of the north-east Amdo province of Tibet, was under the direct rule of Khubilai Khan (see Map 4). Vietnam, Siam, Malacca, Sumatra, Kolang and Java, etc. were vassals to the Mongol Khan.
=85 The Qipchaq Khanate, under the rule of Batu. This consisted of Poland an= d the Russian territories inherited by Jochi.
=85 The eastern Qipchaq Khanate ruled by =D6gedei.
=85 The Karakitai Khanate (Western Liao), or Eastern Turkestan, ruled by Chaghatai.
=85 The Ilkhanate empire ruled by Heluge.
