PART III
Inheritance of authority from the Mongols by China
Besides claiming that Tibet became a part of China because of its alleged annexation by the Yuan empire, the present Chinese Government also holds the view that China inherited authority over Tibet from that same Yuan empire.
Having reviewed and analyzed the history of Tibetan-Mongolian relations, it should be clear that the Chinese Ming empire, which was created in China when the Mongol rulers were overthrown and expelled from that country, had no basis to make any claims on Tibet, any more than it could make claims on parts of Russia, the Middle East, Eastern Europe or other parts of Central Asia, all of which had been part of the great Mongol empire. China would have had a better argument if it claimed Korea, Burma and other parts of South-east Asia, which, unlike Tibet, did come under direct Mongol rule also during the period of the Yuan dynasty. Yet there, too, China cannot claim that it inherited sovereignty or any other authority from the Mongol Khans, since the empire was a Mongolian and not a Chinese one, and China only constituted one part of that empire for less than half of the empire's duration.
During the Ming Dynasty in China (1368 to 1644), the kings and princes of Phagmodrup, Rimpung and Tsang ruled Tibet. The Phagmodrup rulers usurped the throne of Tibet from the Sakya, but lost it to the princes of Rimpung. The Rimpung, in turn, lost power to the princes of Tsang. This was a period of great political upheaval in Tibet. But throughout this era, Tibetans remained firmly in control of their own country. The Ming emperors of China played no role in Tibet.
Map 7 establishes the Chinese empire and was drawn by Wang Fen, a Chinese legal officer under the Ming, in 1594. It contains a note explaining that the map includes the whole of the Chinese territory. The names and sizes of the Chinese regions are clearly spelled out in Chinese. This map includes no region of Tibet, not even the easternmost regions of Amdo.
In fact, Tibet's relationship with the Ming emperors was confined to the exchange of gifts and complimentary titles between Tibetan chieftains and high lamas, on the one hand, and the Ming court, on the other.
Many Tibetans travelled to China ostensibly to receive gifts from the Ming court, but trade was the real purpose of those visits. At one time, Tibetans visited China twice a year under this pretext. In 1536, when over 4,000 Tibetans went to China, the Ming ministers complained at the large influx of Tibetan visitors and stated that gifts should not be given to them on any second visit.
These visits by Tibetans to the Ming court was a ritual which suited the interests of both parties: while allowing Tibetans to buy Chinese merchandise, it satisfied Ming vanity and self-aggrandisement. This relationship, however, never signified the rule of China over Tibet.
=46or example, in 1408 the great Lama Tsongkhapa, founder of the Gelugpa school of Tibetan Buddhism, declined the Ming emperor's invitation to his court by stating that he had to prepare for the Monlam Festival due in Lhasa in the following year. The invitation was repeated in 1414, this time through a gold-letter mail runner. Once again, Tsongkhapa declined by saying that it would not do for him to meet too many people. Instead, Tsongkhapa sent his disciple, Shakya Yeshi, whom Emperor Yunglo adopted as his personal guru, giving him the title of "The incarnation of the Buddha dharma in the west, the Great Gushri".
If Tibet had then been a subject territory of the Ming emperor, Tsongkhapa would have had no choice but to accept the imperial invitation. The fact that Tsongkhapa refused the Ming invitation clearly shows that China had absolutely no control in Tibet during that period.
THE BESTOWAL AND EXCHANGE OF TITLES
Throughout the periods of the Mongol empire, the Chinese Ming empire and, later, the Manchu empire of the Qing, titles were given by powerful rulers, princes and spiritual leaders. The Chinese Government today claims that the bestowal of such honorific titles as the Mongol, Chinese or Manchu emperors gave to Tibetans signifies the submission of those Tibetans and of the entire state to the emperors of the period. Today Chinese authorities interpret those titles as evidence that Tibet was part of the Chinese state.
In reality, the bestowal of titles was an expression of respect and, at times, recognition by the grantor of the title to the recipient. Within a principality, state or empire, titles could be given by the ruler to loyal or brave subjects as a reward or promotion. But mostly titles were given to foreign dignitaries as a mark of respect or recognition.
We have seen how Khubilai Khan gave titles to Phagpa family members that provided them with a standing equivalent to that of high Mongol nobility. This was more than anything an act of respect and a gift. But other Mongol rulers and princes granted titles to Tibetans, even after the fall of the Mongol empire. Thus it was Altan Khan who, in 1578, gave his teacher, Sonam Gyatso, the title of Talai, (Dalai) Lama, meaning Ocean of Wisdom. Tibetan leaders similarly gave Mongol princes titles. The Fifth Dalai Lama, for example, granted his patron, Gushri Khan, the title of Dharma Raja. The Ming emperors gave complimentary titles to anyone requesting them.
The Manchu emperors gave titles to Tibetans, including to the Dalai Lamas. But the Tibetan Dalai Lamas likewise granted the Manchu emperors titles. Thus, for example, the Fifth Dalai Lama received the honorific title "The unifier in one religion of the people living under the sky of the Buddha's teachings in the extremely wholesome, tranquil and celestial land of the West, the Immutable Vajradhara, Oceanic Lama" from the Manchu emperor, Shunzhi, in 1653; and the Dalai Lama, in turn, bestowed upon that emperor the honorific title of "The Heavenly Lord Manjushri, the Great Heavenly Emperor".
Appendix A contains a list of complimentary titles, letters and seals given by or exchanged with the Mongol, Chinese and Manchu emperors. The list is by no means exhaustive, but it is sufficient to show that titles were given to, or exchanged with, secular and spiritual leaders in many countries. This exercise was a part of the diplomatic culture and practice prevailing in the region at the time. With the passage of time, China began to claim that the bestowers of such titles and seals had been placed in a superior political position by virtue of this act.
One need only look at the number of rulers and other dignitaries of countries of Asia that were recipients of such titles and seals to understand the untenability of China's argument that the bestowal of titles on Tibetans at different times in history serves as proof that Tibet was - and remained part of - China.
Conclusion
The review and analysis of the history of Tibetan-Mongolian rela-tions reveals the uniqueness of those relations. To this day Tibetans and Mongolians maintain a close cultural, religious and even political affinity. The relations developed by Mongolian emperors with Tibetan lamas in the thirteenth century did, of course, have political implica-tions. But those ties did not result in the incorporation of Tibet into the Mongolian empire the way other nations and peoples were annexed.
More to the point with respect to China's claim, Tibet did not become part of the Yuan Mongolian empire (i.e. the eastern part of the empire), and was certainly never regarded by any of the parties during this period as a part of China. When Mongol overlordship was asserted over Tibet (between 1240 and 1253) most of China was not even part of the Mongol empire. And by the time the Mongols did conquer and annex China (completed in 1279 with the conquest of the Sung empire) Tibet had already been under Tibetan rule as an entirely separate entity for some twenty years.
The claim that the Chinese Ming empire which arose in China when the Mongol rulers were overthrown and expelled from that country, inherited the rights of the Mongol Yuan Dynasty (1271-1368) with respect to Tibet has absolutely no basis. The Yuan empire's political ties to Tibet were minimal, and whatever did exist ended already in 1350, eighteen years before China regained its independence from Mongol rule.
The Chinese Ming rulers could make no better claims to Tibet than they could to parts of Russia, the Middle East or Eastern Europe, all of which had been part of the great Mongol empire. China would have had a better argument if it claimed Korea, Burma and other parts of South-east Asia which, unlike Tibet, did come under direct Mongol rule also during the period of the Yuan dynasty. Yet there, too, China cannot claim that it inherited sovereignty or any other authority from the Mongol Khans, since the empire was a Mongolian empire and not a Chinese one, and China only constituted one of the many conquered territories of that empire, and that for less than half of the empire's duration. Even the fact that Beijing (Dadu) was chosen as one of the capitals of part of this Mongol empire cannot, by any stretch of the imagination, transform the Mongol empire into a Chinese one.
The current Chinese allegation, therefore, that Mongol conquests - and the political influence this developed - could in any way give today's People's Republic of China any legitimate claims is nothing short of absurd. Equally unfounded is China's claim that the granting of titles or seals is sufficent evidence to prove its historical sovereignty over neighbouring countries and rulers. These allegations are tenable only if Beijing's thorough re-writing of history - in an attempt to legitimize its own aggression and political ambitions - is accepted. But such distortions of history can no longer go un-challenged. The present monogram is a humble contribution to the objective of setting the record straight, and doing so primarily using China's own historical sources.
Appendix A
Titles, Complimentary Titles, Letters and Seals Issued or Exchanged by Rulers and Spiritual Leaders of Mongolia, Tibet, China, Manchuria, Vietnam, Korea and Neighbouring Regions
Imperial Names Year Particulars
1. Empress Ogul Khaimish 1250 Adopted Namo, a Kashmiri spiritual master, as her imperial root-guru. Gave him a turquoise seal and the authority to protect Buddhism. Appointed Namo's monk brother as head of 10,000 households in Kashmir.
2. M=F6ngke Khan 1253 Khubilai Khan gave Drogon Choegyal Phakpa the title "Ti-shi" (imperial preceptor) and adopted him as his personal guru. The Tibetan lama was gifted a jewel- encrusted tablet with a Tibetan letter "Sa" engraved on it.
3. M=F6ngke Khan 1257 Bestowed the title "King of Annam" on Vietnamese Prince Kao Feng, and bound him to pay taxes every three years. Tentren was appointed king of another Vietnamese kingdom, Tentren Chingwang.
4. Khubilai Khan 1261 Made Drogon Choegyal Phakpa the spiritual leader of all Buddhists and adopted him as the imperial guru. Gave him the title of "Dabao Fa Wang", meaning Dharmaraja, the Great Gem.
5. Khubilai Khan 1263 Gave the title "Bailan Wang" to Chakna Dorje, a Tibetan lama of the Sakya school. The Mongol prince, Koton, gave his daughter, Mangala, to the Tibetan lama as his bride.
6. Khubilai Khan 1270 Gave a hexagonal crystal seal to Drogon Choegyal Phakpa. The Sakya lama was also given a special yasa, exalting him in the following words: "Below the skyAbove the EarthThe son of the Indian deityEmanation of the BuddhaInventor of the written scriptHarbinger of peaceArya Ti-shiMaster of the Five Sciences."
7. Khubilai Khan 1287 Established an administrative office called "Pang Yang Shon-wu" in the Burmese city of Kanmen and stationed a military garrison there.
8. Khubilai Khan 1288 Authorized the Korean prince, Wang Yuan, to ascend the throne of his kingdom by giving him a silver seal.
9. Chengzong of Yuan 1295 Gave complimentary titles and a silver seal to the Burmese king.
10. Taiding of Yuan 1324 Authorized the Korean king, who had been exiled to Tibet, to return home and gave him the royal seal.
11. Huizong of Yuan 1354 Gave the title "Ta'i Situ" (grand preceptor) to Tibetan lama Phagdrup Jangchub Gyaltsen.
12. Hong Wu of Ming 1368 Gave complimentary titles and a gold seal to the contemporary Korean king.
13. Hong Wu of Ming 1372 Gave titles like "Gushri", "Chanhua Wang", and "Dabao Fa Wang" to the successors of Karmapa Rolpai Dorjee.
14. Yong-le of Ming 1405 Gave a seal and a gift of fabrics to the ruler of Kalikoti, an Indonesian principality.
15. Yong-le of Ming 1412 Gave a seal and a gift of fabrics to Mahamasar, the King of Lampar, an Indonesian principality.
16. Altan Khan 1578 Invited the Third Dalai Lama, Sonam Gyatso, to Mongolia and gave him the title "Tal=E9 (Dalai) Lama, Vajradhara". The Dalai Lama was also given a gold seal with "Vajradhara, Tal=E9 Lama" incribe= d on it
17. The Third Dalai Lama 1578 Gave the title "Dharmaraja Brahma, the Lord of Devas" to Altan Khan.
18. Wanli of Ming 1578 Gave the title "Vajradhara" to the Third Dalai Lama, Sonam Gyatso.
19. The Fifth Dalai Lama 1637 Gave the complimentary title of "Tenzin Choekyi Gyalpo" (The Holder of the Dharma, the Dharmaraja) to Gushri Khan of Qosot Mongols.
20. Gushri Khan 1637 Tibetan minister Sonam Rabten was given the title of "Dalai's Chief Attendant". Another minister Drongmeypa was given the title of "Jaisang Dehpa"
21. Shunzhi of Manchu 1647 Gave the Panchen Lobsang Choegyal the title "Guru Vajradhara".
22. During the reign of Shunzhi After the surrender of the Vietnamese king, Maojing, his son was given the rank of a Manchu general.
23. Shunzhi of Manchu 1653 Gave the following title to the =46ifth Dalai Lama: "The unifier in one religion of the people living under the sky of the Buddha's teachings in the extremely wholesome, tranquil and celestial land of the West, the Immutable Vajradhara, Oceanic Lama".
24. The Fifth Dalai Lama 1653 Gave Manchu emperor Shunzi the following title: "The Heavenly Lord Manjushri, the Great Emperor".
25. The Fifth Dalai Lama 1658 Gave the title of "Dharma Holder, Vajra King" to the elder son of Gushri Khan.
26. Early period of Manchu reign The Manchu government gave complimentary titles to the king of the Japanese principality, Okinawa.
27. Kangxi of Manchu 1665 Gave a yasa and complimentary titles to the King of Annam, Vietnam.
28. Kangxi of Manchu 1666 Gave the title the "King of Annam" to the King of Vietnam
29. Kangxi of Manchu 1683 Gave complimentary titles inscribed on wood to the King of Annam (Vietnam). The King of Annam, in turn, pledged to send annual gifts to the Manchu court.
30. Qian-long of Manchu 1781 Gave the Eighth Dalai Lama a yasa and a seal inscribed with the following words of exaltation: "The Chief Buddha of the quintessentially wholesome western land/The holder of the Buddha's complete teachings on this earthThe All-knowing Vajradhara Dalai Lama.
31. Qian-long of Manchu 1786 Gave a yasa and title to the King of Siam, who had sent his emissaries with taxes to the Manchu court for this very purpose.
32. Qian-long of Manchu 1788 The Manchu forces quelled an internecine strife in Vietnam and gave complimentary titles to the Vietnamese King and his descendants.
33. Qian-long of Manchu 1790 The Vietnamese King came to the Manchu court in Peking and received the title of the King of Annam.
34. Qian-long of Manchu 1790 Gave complimentary titles to the King of Burma and bound him to send tributes every decade.
35. Qian-long of Manchu 1793 Bestowed a jewel and peacock feather denoting the rank of "Wang" on the Nepalese king, Rana Bahadur Shah, to mount on his crown.
36. Jia-qing of Manchu 1802 Bestowed the title "the King of Yunnan" on the Vietnamese king.
37. Yuan Shi-kai 1914 Gave the title "Jetsun Dhampa Khuthuktu" to Khelkha Jetsun Dhampa.
38. Nationalist China 1919 Gave complimentary titles, inscribed on golden paper, to Jetsun Dhampa. Jetsun Dhampa was also given a gold seal with "Jetsun Dhampa Khutuktu" inscribed on it. The exchange of complimentary titles, letters and seals was a part of diplomatic culture prevailing in Central Asia in that period. With the passage of time, China began to claim that the bestowers of titles and seals had been placed in a superior position by virtue of this act.
Appendix B
Dynastic Table
Monarchs Reign Period
1 Chinggis Khan 1206-1227
2 Tolui 1228
3 =D6gedei 1229-1241
4 Queen Naimanjin 1242-1245
5 G=FCy=FCk 1246-1248
6 Queen Ogulhaimish 1249-1250
7 M=F6ngke Khan 1251-1259
8 Khubilai Khan 1260-1294
In 1271 the Mongols adopted the dynastic title of Yuan
No. Monarchs Reign Period
9 Chengzong (Timur Oljeitu) 1295-1307
10 Wuzong (Ha Khaisan) 1308-1311
11 Renzong (Ayurbarwada) 1312-1320
12 Yingzong (Shidebala) 1321-1323
13 Taiding (Yesun Timur) 1324-1328
14 Wenzong (ToghTemur) 1329-1331
15 Ningzong (Irinjibal) 1332
16 Huizong (Toghon Timur) 1333-1368
In 1368 the Ming seized power in China, precipitating the ffiglat of
Huizong to Mongol homeland
No. Monarchs Reign Period
17 Huizong 1369-1370
18 Zhaozong (Biligtu Khan) 1371-1378
19 Thuksi Temurey 1378-1402
The Yuan dynasty ends here, leading to the disintegration of the Mongolian s=
tate
=46ootnotes
1 The New Yuan-shih
2 ibid
3 ibid
4 ibid
5 Yuan-shih, chapter 121-123
6 ibid
7 The New Yuan-shih
8 ibid
9 Chinese-Tibetan Encyclopaedia, p.3228
10 Ci Hai, Chinese Encyclopaedia
11 Duosang Mongol History, Vol. 1, chapter 2, 1939
12 History of Zhong-gou Border Nationalities
13 Zhong-gou Tong-shi, Vol. 2
14 The New Yuan-shih, Ci Hai
15 Duosang Mongol History, Vol. 1
16 ibid
17 History of Zhong-gou Border Nationalities, Vol. 2; Ci Hai; The History of Timur
18 Zhong-gou Tong-shi
19 Duosang Mongol History, Vol. 1; Zhong-gou Tong-shi; History of Zhong-gou Border Nationalities; The New Yuan-shih
20 Zhong-gou Tong-shi, Vol. 2
21 Yuan-shih, Chinese-Tibetan Encyclopaedia, p.3229
22 The Sakya Genealogy, p 67
23 Gem Treasure House of the Sakaya Genealogy, p 67; Chinese-Tibetan Encyclopaedia, p.3230
24 Gem Treasure House of the Sakaya Genealogy
25 Zhong-gou Tong-shi, Vol. 2
26 ibid
27 Gem Treasure House of the Sakaya Genealogy, p 71 and 88
28 Zhong-gou Tong-shi, Vol. 2
29 History of Zhong-gou Borders Nationalities, p 555
30 ibid
31 Chinese-Tibetan Encyclopaedia, p.3231; Ci Hai
32 History of Zhong-gou Borders
33 Ci Hai; Chinese-Tibetan Encyclopaedia, p.3231
34 Chinese-Tibetan Encyclopaedia, p.3232
35 ibid, p 3233
36 History of Zhong-gou Border Nationalities
37 Zhong-gou Tongshi, chapter 3; Zizhi Tong-jing
38 Shi Zi, the History of Korea; Zizhi Tong-jing
39 Duosang Mongol History, chapter 4, p 343
40 The New Yuan-shi, chapter 58
41 Duosang Mongol History; Zhong-gou Tongshi
42 Ci Hai
43 Gem Treasure House of the Sakaya Genealogy
44 The New Yuan-shih
