European Parliament
DIRECTORATE GENERAL FOR RESEARCH
Luxembourg, 10 December 1996
Political and Institutional Affairs Division
MC/mf
NOTA BENE: this research could be further implemented. For that reason it's asked to everybody to read it, to make comment and any other useful suggestion in this conference, but also to respect the embargo untill the text will be put in a public conference. Thanks.
ISLAM AND ALCOHOL
Introduction
This study considers the question of Islam and alcohoL It does so in a straightforward manner, firstly by examining the historical evolution of the religion's attitudes to alcohol and the textual basis for its teaching, before detailing more contemporary Islamic prescriptions on the subject. In turn, the impLications of these particular religious codes, in concert with their contemporary application through the national laws of countries where the faith is important or even dominant, are then outlined. Nevertheless, this paper concentrates on the political aspects present in the relationship between Islam and alcohol, though it also delves into other areas, such as culture, economics, and society. Finally, the subject of Islam and alcohol is related back to the interest of the European Union (EU) in the question; a limited further reference section follows.
Islam, which is fundamentally theocratic, is a major world religion and the faith predominating throughout North Africa and the Middle East (with the exception of Israel), as well as in many countries in Central Asia and the Far East. Its geographical proximity to the EU, along with the Islamic revival witnessed in the last two decades, as well as other factors such as trade, overseas development, immigration, et cetera, has made this religion and its intrinsic features a very important consideration. Its recent revivalist phase, especially since 1979, has been the cause both of concern and of interest. Certainly, as R.B. Serjeant has said:
Islam makes no essential distinction between religion and politics so this affects not only the whole Muslim community but also those other faiths residing in an Islamic faith.
Nevertheless, it is also true to say that its impact extends beyond such borders and, indeed, just like the other major world religions, that it can make such confines seem meaningless.
Islam literally means submission or surrender to God and is a universal faith with around 800 million adherents, emphasising an uncompromising monotheism and a strict adherence to certain religious practices. Although there have been many sects and movements within the religion, and though there are striking cultural and religious differences across the regions of the Islamic world, all followers of Islam are bound by a common faith and by a strong sense of belonging to a single community.
The Sunni sect, adherents to which are considered to be orthodox, makes up around 80% of the world's total Muslim population. On Islamic law, Sunnis divide into four rites: the Malekite (whose adherents are spread throughout North Africa, as well as in Nigeria and the Sudan), the Shafi'i (the widest rite in extent with adherents in Egypt, the Middle East, and the Far East), the Hanbali (regarded as the strictest Sunni rite, with adherents mainly in Saudi Arabia), and the Hanafi (seen as the most moderate, with its adherents mainly living between Turkey and the Indian sub-continent). The major schism in Islam came early in its existence and primarily resulted in the Shi'a sect being born, which is the established religion in Iran and is also concentrated in Iraq and north India. They have their own version of Islamic law. It should be noted though that Shi'ite Islam does not differ from the Sunni orthodoxy on fundamental issues, especially since they ultimately draw from the same sources. There are other divi
sions, including the Sufis, mystics known to use stimulants such as hashish and opium and who have been banned entirely in some places, and the Druze, viewed as heretics but who drew inspiration from the Islamic revolution in Iran for their jihad (holy war) against Israel. However, Shi'ite Islam is the only important surviving sect outside orthodoxy, numbering around 10% of the total global Muslim population. The heart of any culture principally involves language, religion, values, traditions, and customs. Islam draws most of its teaching from the Qur'an (Koran), its infallible sacred scripture which means 'recitation', and from the Sunna, various Islamic traditions which include the sayings and deeds of Muhammad; together, the Koran and Sunna constitute the Shari'a, that is Islamic law. The Koran, which remains sacrosanct, lays down certain social and moral rules, including the prohibition on wine, an ordinance which has historically proven to be difficult to enforce; also drafted in the Koran are substanti
al tracts on family and social legislation regarding personal and communal behaviour. However, as R.B. Serjeant has written:
The completely Islamic state as the theorists envisage it, run in conformity with the rules of the Shari'a, has probably never been achieved, and people's practice is often at variance with some or other requirements of Shari'a.
The limited social law laid down in the Koran is supplemented by a body of Islamic law which has been traditionally derived. Sunni Muslims thus follow the Sunna, that is the practice, course, way, manner or conduct of Muhammad, which has been welded into Islam. Although in practical terms the Shari 'a is open to debate, in modern times interpretation of the law ranges between conservative rigorism and modernism.
The status of alcohol in Islam
* Please note that the numbers which follow quotations from the Koran refer to chapter and verse.
Paul Balla has written that "the good Muslim does not drink wine". The word 'alcohol' though is itself derived from the Arabic word 'al-kohl', indicating the importance of the drug for pre-Islamic Arabs, who obviously felt the need to use it in a time when this substance performed as a very functional intoxicant. The historical encouragement of abstinence in Islamic culture, dating back to Muhammad's time, is based in the belief that central Muslim values and ideas of community negate the grounds for a requirement such as alcohol; however, history has also proved that this ideal and Utopian vision is difficult to obtain and reach in practice. For Muslims, the main religious tracts * dealing with the question of alcohol, which declare a total prohibition on its consumption in addition to forbidding gambling, recount:
The devil wants only to cast among you enmity and hatred by means of strong drink and games of chance and to turn you from remembering Allah and from prayer. Will you not then desist. (5:90-91)
However, this is not the only reference from which Islam draws its dietary laws on alcohol because an earlier reference in sacred scripture, though less explicit in pointing out the twin evils of alcohol and gambling, also reads:
They ask thee concerning wine and gambling, say: "In them is great sin, and some profit, for men; but the sin is greater than the profit ..." (2:219)
Another verse from the Koran, though less than valedictory, draws unfavourable images of the consequences of alcohol-abuse when it states:
And from the fruit of the date-palm and the vine ye get out wholesome drink and food: behold in this also is a Sign for those who are wise. (16:67)
The choice between abstinence or a reduction in alcohol-intake is not a practical one though for Muslims to take, primarily because of the regular call to worship, which come five times a day between rising and sleeping. As one analyst of the relationship between Islam and alcohol, Alyssa Samadi puts it: "Since the prayers are spread throughout the day, it is difficult if not impossible, for a good Muslim to ever get drunk". For that basic reason, the Koran absolutely forbids the intake of alcohol before the call to prayer; the relevant passage tells adherents:
O ye who believe! Approach not prayers with a mind befogged, until ye can understand all that ye say ... (4:43)
These verses are not open interpretation, but are supplemented by teaching and practice. Muslims share with other religions, such as Buddhism, in their total abstinence from alcohol. Nonetheless, Islamic attitudes to alcohol do mark a `radical departure' from other mainstream religions, such as Judaism and Christianity, even if differences in application may not always have been so wide in historical terms or, indeed, in current practice. For instance, though Jews frown upon alcoholic beverages, they do not forbid them; in reality, wine is a very important element in ceremonial occasions and feasts, leading to an interesting sociocultural phenomenon in which a people with the highest proportion of drinkers exhibits one of the lowest rates of alcoholism or other alcohol-related problems. In comparison both to Islam and Judaism, though Christianity did not necessarily develop such an elaborate set of dietary rules and customs, it has to be pointed out that a number of abstemious Christian denominations and sec
ts, especially those in the United States (US), have made abstinence a fundamental tenet for their followers. Indeed, earlier this century during its time of prohibition, the US Government itself strictly forbade the consumption, distribution, manufacture, and sale of alcohol for a fifteen year period after 1919. Of course, more recently, the Black Muslim movement proscribed the consumption of alcohol for its adherents as well.
Country profiles
It has been argued recently that economic development and modernisation neither require nor produce cultural westernisation. In fact, what they actually promote is the complete opposite development, that is a resurgence of indigenous cultures and a renewed commitment to them, often taking the form of religion. Indeed, Samuel Huntington has explicitly stated:
The Islamic Resurgence has manifested itself in every Muslim country; in almost all it has become a major social, cultural, and intellectual movement, and in most it has had a deep impact on politics. In 1996 virtually every Muslim country except Iran was more Islamic and more Islamist in its outlook, practices and institutions than it was 15 years earlier ... where Islamist political forces do not shape the government, they invariably dominate and often monopolize the opposition ... Throughout the Muslim world people are reacting against the "Westoxification" of their societies.
In the context o£Islam and alcohol, how does this theory break down on the basis of attitudes in individual Muslim countries?
With the coherence of this investigation's presentation in mind, it is only possible to make some general remarks at this point. However, as over thirty profiles of Islamic or Islam-influenced countries form the basis of this analysis, they are presented at a later stage under four separate headings (see Annexes I through IV): North Africa; the Middle East; Central Asia; and the Far East. Even still, the countries chosen do not account for all the significant Muslim countries in the world as a much wider-ranging investigation would be needed for that purpose. It has been said that Islam is not only a "highly developed religious system"; indeed, Islam is also a distinctive and established culture embracing "every aspect of human activity ... even the individual's routine daily conduct". Obviously, each country has distinctive characteristics of their own. Indeed, population data, trade figures, knowledge of constitutional/legal positions, and information on respective governments in these Islamic or Islam-in
fluenced countries give clues as to how these religious laws on alcohol actually operate. Certain points can be made regarding the relationship, primarily in general terms, with additional recourse to recent related instances; therefore, broader statements on Islam's relationship with alcohol can be made, in conjunction with individual instances of how this relationship works in practice. In Saudi Arabia and Pakistan, for instance, Islam played a primary role in the formation of a national identity. Generally with the countries of North Africa, a form of secular nationalism has downgraded Islam to such an extent that the production of alcoholic beverages such as beer and wine, along with their domestic consumption, is not an unusual phenomenon. This does not compare, or course, to countries such as Iran or the Sudan which have both undergone a conservative Islamic revolution, a central product of which has been a religious intolerance that is encouraged both by local sentiment and by government-sponsored nat
ionalism. Nevertheless, it is the resurgence of economic, social, and military power that has been the most portentous and contemporary factor in the relationship between Islam and the wider world.
Islam, alcohol and the EU
Of course, the EU is most concerned with the question of Islam as it directly relates to Europe. This is why, because of the proximity to the Mediterranean Sea, this final section concentrates on the subject of Islam and alcohol in the context of North Africa and the Middle East, though some reference is still made, when necessary, to Central Asia and to the Far East. However, the EU dimension to the question has to be clarified from the outset and also kept in mind. In France, Germany, and the United Kingdom (UK), there are substantial Muslim minorities, but these do not fall within the scope of this investigation; Spain is another question, because most of the Africans living in Spanish North Africa - that is in Ceuta and Mehlla - are Muslims, totalling around 34,000 out of a total population of 135,000 at the beginning of the 1990s. In addition, an estimated 300,000 Muslims reside in Spain itself. Certain vital statistics cannot be ignored though. In the French case, for example, these show that in numeri
cal terms Islam is the second religion; in 1993, there were around 3 million adherents, mostly from North Africa, of whom more than 3/4 million resided in the Marseilles area. In addition, there are 2 million Muslims in Germany, mostly of Turkish origin. Finally, the Muslim community in the UK, which is estimated to number 1.3 million practicising adherents, mainly consists of people from the Indian sub-continent and their British-born descendants; the chief concentrations of Muslims are in London, the Midlands, and Yorkshire. Nonetheless, these countries and this European domestic consideration are virtually ignored in this short presentation. Of course, other European states have their own indigenous Islamic considerations. In Cyprus, for instance, most adherents of Islam are Sunni Muslims of the Hanafi sect; indeed, most Turks on the island (about 30% of the total population) are Muslims. Then there is the question of Yugoslavia (including states from the ex-Yugoslavia, such as Croatia and Bosnia-Herzegov
ina), as well as other states in Balkan Europe, such as Albania and Bulgaria, but once again these countries fall outside the scope of this paper. When trade with the EU and the wider world is considered, two of the most important products which one can think of, in the context of Islam and alcohol, are beer and wine; for the limited purposes of this study, other alcoholic beverages such as spirits are ignored, as are questions regarding industrial alcohol.
If beer is taken as the first category and then related to North Africa, many interesting points emerge (see table 1 the significance of beer to North Africa, 1994). Firstly, it can be seen that most of the beer produced is for domestic markets; indeed, most of this beer has a low alcohol content. The contrast between the North African states and Nigeria, which is an important brewer in global terms, is palpable. At the same time, it can be seen from these figures that imported beer, which is mainly used to satisfy the tourist trade, especially in Morocco, does not account for a large sum of imports. On this basis, there is also the question of wine production, which due to the strong sunshine of North Africa lends to the strength of the wine produced, and additionally there is also the issue of export and import markets (see table 2 the significance of wine to North Africa, 1994). Once again, production is very important for the domestic market, but, in this case, wine is also a very important earner of for
eign currency through its export. Import figures are also significant for a country such as Morocco, which has a very important tourist market for which to cater. Though this data is not conclusive about the domestic consumption of beer and alcohol it does indicate that attitudes indeed vary from country to country, from class to class, and from family to family. In Libya, for example, though reliable data is generally not easily obtainable, alcohol is prohibited; in contrast, the Egyptian Government is much more relaxed about the availability of alcohol. This also draws attention to the wider question of Islamic attitudes to alcohol. The only conclusion that one can draw is that it varies from case to case. Linked to Islam and alcohoL there is also the question of banking and investment for the EU. In fact, in October 1996, France's Banque National de Paris launched an Islamic global equity fund, aiming to raise around US$30 million within three to four months from investors in the Middle East and the Far E
ast. In deference to Islamic sensibilities, it was clear from the outset that the fund would not invest in companies associated with arms making, alcohol, gambling or any other activities forbidden by Islam.
Conclusions
Obviously, one of the main reasons why the EU is so interested in the question of Islam and alcohol is trade; however, this has to be tied into attitudes within the Islamic revival movement about Europe. There is frequently the complaint within these circles that a `bad press' exists against Islam, that their traditional religion and politics are distorted in the West basically through "ignorance or deliberate bias". Indeed, R.B. Serjeant goes on to recount that:
A Muslim writer recently distinguished between `Westernization' and `modernization', describing the latter as broadly acceptable, except to a reactionary minority. If the distinction between the two is a little blurred, the idea has some validity. In general, however, the Islamic revival among ordinary Muslims is bound up with factors, simple conservatism apart, varying from country to country and class to class, and it may oppose either governments run on a secular basis, or those claiming to be 'Islamic'.
As with any investigation into an aspect of a different heritage, it is as important for the West, in direct conjunction with the beliefs and traditions of the outside party in question, to examine its own attitudes to a given subject as it is for any sort of evaluation to be made. Indeed, it is crucial not to take any issue out of its cultural or political context, that is to say that one set of views regarding what can be considered to be acceptable/unacceptable, right/wrong, should not be imposed by one society onto another without first looking at the wider picture of what can genuinely be seen as legitimate human behaviour at the end of the twentieth century. In truth, it would be dangerous to do so in any way except in an informed and detached manner.
Some further references
Balta, Paul & Anne-Marie Delcombe, "L'islam", in L'état des religions dans le monde (Paris: La Découverte/Le Cerf, 1987), pp.l44-167
Delaunoy, Geneviève, "Women in Islam: the situation of Muslim women in the Mediterranean countries of the near and Middle East and the Maghreb", European Parliament (Luxembourg) Working Paper -Women's Rights series W-6, PE 165.358
Huntington, Samuel P., "The West: unique, not universal", in Foreign Affairs Volume 75 Number 6 November/December 1996, pp.28-46
Parrinder, Geoffrey, "The religions of Asia: Islam", in The Far East and Australasia, 1995 (London: Europa, 1995), pp.15- 16 Samadi, Alyssa, "Alcohol and Muslims", in Islamic Journal December 1995
Serjeant, R.B., "The religions of the Middle East and North Africa: Islam", in The Middle East and North Africa, 1995 (London: Europa, 1995), pp.14-20
Table 1 the significance of beer to North Africa, 1994
(production, export, and import figures) *
hl= hectolitres
mt= metric tons
-----------------------------------------------------------
Beer Production Exports Exports Imports Imports
(hl) (mt) (US$) (mt) (US$)
-----------------------------------------------------------
Algeria 337,000 - - 250 170,000
-----------------------------------------------------------
Egypt 420,000 466 184,000 313 137,000
-----------------------------------------------------------
Libya n.d.a. n.d.a. n.d.a. n.d.a. n.d.a.
-----------------------------------------------------------
Morocco 411,000 47 59,000 1,962 1,551,000
-----------------------------------------------------------
Tunisia 405,000 343 756,000 369 469,000
-----------------------------------------------------------
Mauritania n.d.a. - - 150 170,000
-----------------------------------------------------------
Nigeria 6,695,000 450 250,000 700 720,000
-----------------------------------------------------------
Sudan n.d.a. n.d.a. n.d.a. n.d.a. n.d.a.
-----------------------------------------------------------
Table 2 the significance of wine to North Africa, 1994
(production, export, and import figures)
-----------------------------------------------------------
Wine Production Exports Exports Imports Imports
(mt) (mt) US$ mt US$
-----------------------------------------------------------
Algeria 50,000 9,400 3,300,000 25 200,000
-----------------------------------------------------------
Egypt 2,000 466 11,000 1 4,000
-----------------------------------------------------------
Libya - n.d.a. n.d.a. n.d.a. n.d.a.
-----------------------------------------------------------
Morocco 40,000 5,777 6,280,000 9,747 5,760,000
-----------------------------------------------------------
Tunisia 38,000 13,388 8,310,000 126 600,000
-----------------------------------------------------------
Mauritania - - - 60 450,000
-----------------------------------------------------------
Nigeria n.d.a. n.d.a. n.d.a. 2,000 4,100,000
-----------------------------------------------------------
Sudan - n.d.a. n.d.a. n.d.a. n.d.a.
-----------------------------------------------------------
* The figures used in these two tables are all for 1994, except for the latest domestic production figures of beer which date as follows: Algeria and Egypt (1992), Morocco (1985), Tunisia (1988), and Nigeria (1987). Statistics come from two publications: Food and Agricultural Organisation of the United Nations, FAO yearbook: trade, 1994 (Rome: United Nations, 1995); United Nations, Statistical yearbook, 1993, (New York: United Nations, 1995). Please note that n.d.a. means no data available.
Annex I - North Africa
The category North Africa concentrates on presenting separate notes regarding Algeria, Egypt, Libya, Morocco, and Tunisia; West, sub-Saharan, and East Africa have been ignored here for practical purposes, though notes on Mauritania, Nigeria, and the Sudan are included in this classification for comparative reasons and follow directly afterwards. Reasons of completeness would have entailed substantial analyses of African countries such as the Gambia and Somalia, amongst others, many of whom profess Islam as the state religion and/or have substantial Muslim inhabitants which exceed 90% of the total population, as well as being important to the EU for reasons a]ready mentioned in the introduction and on such diverse grounds as their former colonial status and the Aids epidemic.
* Algeria - the Democratic and Popular Republic of Algeria
Population 26.6 million (1993). The Algerian population is Muslim with a very few exceptions. The recent revival of conservative Islam in Algeria, especially since June 1990, and in North Africa in general has become a point of some concern to the EU. Islam is the state religion.
* Egypt - the Arab Republic of Egypt
Population 57.9 million (1994). More than 85% of Egyptian citizens are Muslim, almost all of whom observe Sunni tenets. Though a secular state, alcoholic beverages are not served at public occasions or in public places, but are available within society. Indeed, though Islam bans the consumption of alcohol the Egyptians, like the more conservative Pakistani Government, for instance, allow sales under special licenses at hotels and tourist destinations. In fact, the Egyptian Government sold its only brewery in November 1996, which markets its beer under the Stella brand name, for US$90 million to an international consortium.
* Libya - the Great Socialist People's Libyan Arab Jamahiriya
Population 4.9 million (1994). Almost all Libyans, practically without exception, follow Sunni rites. However, though Colonel Muammar al-Qaddafi has rejected the Sunna as a basis for legislation, judicial committees were formed in 1971 to examine Libyan law and to ensure that it coincides with the rules of Shari'a. Basically, the Koran is the law of society. Libya is a conservative Muslim country where alcohol is banned. Indeed, despite a recent drive to attract tourists, the Libyan tourist board director, Mohamed Abulhoul, said in July 1996: "We don't want the tourist who will sit by the pool drinking beer... Libya is a special market."
* Morocco - the Kingdom of Morocco
Population 26.1 million (1994). About 99% of Moroccans are Muslims, of whom about 90% are of the Sunni sect. The production of beer and wine, both for the domestic market and for export, has become a very significant consideration for the Moroccan economy in general and for the tourist industry in particular. Islam is the state religion.
* Tunisia - the Republic of Tunisia
Population 8.9 million (1995). The Tunisian population is 99% Muslim. The 1956 Constitution recognises Islam as the state religion, with the introduction of certain reforms, such as the abolition of polygamy.
* Mauritania - the Islamic Republic of Mauritania
Population 2.2 million (1994). Islam is the state religion and the population are almost entirely Muslims of the Malekite rite. Islamic law was introduced in February 1980. Chinguetti in the district of Adrar, is the seventh most holy place in Islam.
* Nigeria - the Federal Republic of Nigeria
Population 88.5 million (1991). Around 50% of the population are Muslim Nigeria is secular.
* Sudan - the Republic of Sudan
Population 24.9 million (1993). Sudanese Islam has a strong Sufi element and is estimated to have more than 15 million adherents, who are concentrated in the north of the country. Islam is the state religion. Until September 1983, the judicial system was divided into two sections, civil and Islamic, the latter dealing only with personal and family matters; that month, all existing laws were revoked in favour of a new system of Islamic law. Under the provisions of the new penal code, alcohol and gambling were prohibited, while imprisonment was largely replaced by the death penalty or dismemberment. Crimes of murder and related offenses were judged in accordance with the Koran. Following the April 1985 coup, these religious courts were abolished, but Islamic law was reintroduced in March 1991 except for some states in the south of the country.
Annex II - the Middle East
This category briefly describes the Islamic situation in the Middle Eastern countries of Bahrain, Iran, Iraq, Israel, Jordan, Kuwait, the Lebanon, Oman, Palestine, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Syria, Turkey, the United Arab Emirates, and Yemen.
* Bahrain - the State of Bahrain
Population 568,000 (1994). Together making up over 80% of the population, Bahraini Muslims are divided between the Sunni and Shi'a sects. Although the ruling family is Sunni, the majority of the Muslim population, estimated at almost 60%, are Shi'ite.
* Iran - the Islamic Republic of Iran
Population 59.8 million (1994). The great majority of the Iranian people are Shi'a Muslims, but there is a minority of Sunni Muslims; Persians and Azerbaijanis are mainly Shi'a, while the other ethnic groups are mainly Sunni. According to the 1979 Constitution, the Iranian state religion is Islam of the Ja'fari sect, which is Shi'a, but the other sects - including the Zaidis (liberal and moderate Shi'i) and the four Sunni rites - are valid and respected. In August 1982, the Supreme Court revoked all laws dating from the previous regime which did not conform with Islam. Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini ordered the creation of clerical courts to try members of the clergy opposed to Iranian Government policy in June 1987; a system of qisas (retribution) was established, placing the emphasis on speedy justice. Islamic codes of correction had already been introduced four years previously, including dismemberment of the hand for theft, flogging for formication and violations of the strict code of dress for women, and s
toning for adultery. The destruction of bars since the Islamic revolution has been one of the more minor considerations in Iranian society because, in contemporary Iran, one hundred and nine offenses are punishable by the death penalty.
* Iraq - the Republic of Iraq
Population 17.9 million (1991). About 95% of the population are Muslims, more than 50% of whom are Shi'ite. However, the regime which came to power in 1968 has been dominated by members of the Sunni sect; the Arabs in the north of Iraq, as well as the Bedouins, the Kurds, the Turkomans, and some of the inhabitants of Baghdad and Basra, are mainly Sunni. Alcohol is freely available for those who can afford it, which coupled with the Iraq Government's relatively modern, largely Westernised, approach has led to severe reproach emanating from Islamic fundamentalists, who have in turn been harshly suppressed.
* Israel - the State of Israel
Population 5.5 million (1994). Jerusalem is the third most sacred place in Islam and has been the scene of much confrontation. The Muslims of Israel totalling 15% of the total population, are mainly Sunnis. They thus number 3/4 million people, and divide among the four rites of the Sunni sect of Islam; there is also a Druze minority of around 60,000. The religious courts apply law to family matters and its jurisdiction is voluntary. As in the rest of the Middle East, social pressures from family and peer groups, especially in rural areas, obviously advocate and enforce a stricter adherence to Islamic teaching on alcohol.
* Jordan - the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan
Population 5.2 million (1994). Over 80% of the population are Sunni Muslims, though there is a small Shi'a community. The Jordanian Head of State, King Hussein ibn Talal, can trace unbroken descent from Muhammad.
* Kuwait - the State of Kuwait
Population 1.6 million (1995). The Kuwaiti inhabitants are mainly Muslims of the Sunni and Shi'a sects, totalling around 95% of the population; the Shi'a comprise around 30% of the total.
* Lebanon - the Republic of Lebanon
Population 2.9 million (1994). In 1983, estimates of the Muslim population gave figures of 1.2 million Shi'a Muslims, who mainly lived near the Israel border to the south, up to 250,000 Druze
who lived north of there, and 3/4 million Sunni Muslims who lived in the Tripoli area; this gave a combined figure of around 57% of the country's inhabitants. Lebanon is secular.
* Oman - the Sultanate of Oman
Population 2.1 million (1994). Islam is the state religion. A majority of Omanis are Muslim, around 75% of the total population; of these, 3/4 are of the Ibadi sect - as Oman developed its own branch of Islam and made an early break from the Islamic mainstream - and about 1/4 are Sunni Mushm, with a small Shi'a minority. Fanaticism has previously been condemned by the Sultan of Oman, Qaboos bin Said. Jurisdiction is exercised by the Shari'a Courts, applying Islamic law, although other aspects of law to which the Shari'a does not have competence have also been introduced. The Grand Mufti of Oman is Shaikh Ahmed bin Hamed al-Khahli.
* Palestine - the Palestinian Authority
Population 1.8 million (1994). In 1988, 97% of the population living in the West Bank were Palestinian Arabs, of whom some 85% were Muslim; in 1984, 98% of the population of the Gaza Strip were Arabic-speaking Muslims. The Jerusalem Mufti Ikrema Sabri concerned about the growing permissiveness in Palestinian society, called a fatwa (religious decree) in October 1996, demanding to ban the sale of alcohol, the non-issue of new liquor licences to shops and restaurants, and the revocation of existing ones. Palestinians have been less strict about the ban on alcohol than Muslims in other countries, such as Saudi Arabia and the Sudan. Liquor is available in some shops and restaurants, especially in cities with a large Christian population. Restrictions were further eased with the start of Palestinian self-rule. Indeed, the Palestinian Government of Yasser Arafat is largely secular in its outlook, though it has been careful not to break openly with Mushm tradition. Nevertheless, since August 1996, with the introduc
tion of the indigenous Taybeh Brewery, which followed a US$1.7 million investment, a commercial beer is for the first time being produced in Palestine. Indeed, the beer is even kosher and has been certified as such by a Jewish rabbi for its export to Israel.
* Qatar - the State of Qatar
Population 593,000 (1994). The indigenous Qatari population, about 1/3 of the totaL are Sumli Muslims, most being of the strict Wahhabi persuasion which is of the Hanbali school, though almost all of the other inhabitants are Mushm as well. The Shari'a Court decides on all issues regarding the personal's of Muslims, specific offenses where the defendant is Muslim, and civil disputes where the parties elect to have them adjudicated upon by recourse to Islamic law, as specified in the Koran and Sunna.
* Saudi Arabia - the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
Population 16.9 million (1994). Arabia is the centre of the Islamic faith. Saudi Arabia includes the holy cities of Mecca, birthplace of Muhammad and seat of the Great Mosque and Shrine of Ka'ba which annually attract one million pilgrims, and Medina, the burial place of Muhammad and the second sacred city of Islam Except in the Eastern Province, where a large number of people follow Shi'ite rites, the majority of the population are Sunni Muslims; most of the indigenous inhabitants belong to the strictly orthodox Wahhabi sect. The Wahhabis originated in the 18th Century, but first became unified under Abd al-Aziz, who became the first King of Saudi Arabia. The Wahhabis are the keepers of the two most holy places in Islam and control the pilgrimage to Mecca. In 1986, King Fahd ibn Abd al-Aziz as-Sa'ud adopted the title of Custodian of the Two Holy Mosques. Though some signs of accommodation have been seen in recent years, a strict formal adherence to Islam remains the norm in Saudi Arabia. As R.B.Serjeant has
written: "Saudi Arabia's financial and moral strength has enabled it to take practical steps to pressure other Islamic states to conform, sometimes if they fear only to be out of line, to such Islamic prescriptions as the prohibition of liquor". Though alcohol sales are banned in Saudi Arabia, three star football players were suspended from the Saudi soccer team in October 1996 following their conviction by an Islamic court for `immoral acts', a phrase which usually refers to behaviour out of line with strict Mushm tenets, such as drinking alcohol or consorting with women outside of the family. The convictions carried jail sentences of three months, two of which are being served; the third player absconded to the US.
* Syria - the Syrian Arab Republic
Population 13.8 million (1994). In religion, the majority of Syrians follow a form of Islamic Sunni orthodoxy. There is also a considerable number of religious minorities: Shi'a Muslims, Ismaili Muslims (an offshoot of the Shi'a), the Nizari Ismaili (the Aga Khan is their spiritual head), a large number of Druze, the Alawites (a schism of the Shi'a branch of Islam, to which President Assad belongs, who comprise about 10% of the population), amongst others. The Syrian Constitution states only states that "Islam shall be the religion of the head of the state"; the original draft of the 1973 Constitution made no reference to Islam at all, and this clause was only inserted as a compromise after public protest. The Constitution of Syria is thus unique among the constitutions of Arab states (excluding Lebanon) with a clear Mushm majority in not enshrining Islam as the religion of the state itself.
* Turkey - the Republic of Turkey
Population 61.6 million (1995). More than 99% of the Turkish people are Muslims and have always been characterised by their adherence to Sunni orthodoxy. Turkey is a secular state though. Although Islam was stated to be the official religion in the 1924 Constitution, an amendment four years later revoked that privilege. After 1950, subsequent governments have tried to re-establish links between religion and state affairs, but secularity was protected by ensuing events such as the revolution in 1960, the coup in 1980, and the 1982 Constitution.
* United Arab Emirates - the United Arab Emirates
Population 2.2 million (1994). Most of the inhabitants are Muslims of the Sunni sect, though about 16% of the Muslims are Shi'a. In February 1994, President Sheikh Zayed ordered that an extensive range of crimes, including murder, theft, and adultery, be tried in religious rather than in civil courts.
* Yemen - the Republic of Yemen
Population 2.5 million (1990). The majority of the population are Muslims. Most are Sunni Muslims of the Shafi'i sect, except in the north-west of the country where Zaidism is the dominant persuasion. As the Yemeni ambassador to Belgium, Gazem A.KAI-Aghbari, recently wrote in relation to his country's relationship with Islam and alcohol: "we are an Islamic country and alcohol is forbidden".
Annex III - Central Asia
In relation to Central Asia, the countries that are dealt with are Afghanistan, Bangladesh, India, the Maldives, Pakistan, and Sri Lanka. Obviously enough, there is also the question of Russia (including states from the ex-USSR, such as Kazakhstan, Kyrgystan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan) to be considered, but these countries fall outside the scope of this paper.
* Afghanistan - the Islamic State of Afghanistan
Population 18.6 million (1986). The official religion is Islam. Muslims comprise 99% of the population, approximately 80% of them are Sunni, with the remainder from the Shi'a sect. The recent upheavals in this country earlier this year have led to an increased conservatism in the application of Islamic law and practice. Indeed, the Taliban movement espouses a fiercely fundamentalist form of Islam that prohibits women from work and school; it also bans television and alcohoL In a graphic display of implementing Islamic laws, journalists were invited in October 1996 to witness Taliban militia destroy a large quantity of alcohol by crushing it under a tank. The head of Taliban religious police, Mullah Abdul Wali, declared that: "There is no room for it in Islam... It is forbidden to drink, sell or otherwise transact alcohol in Islam".
* Bangladesh - the People's RepubLic of Bangladesh
Population 117.8 million (1984). Over 85% of the Bangladeshi population are classified as Muslim. Though freedom of religious worship is guaranteed under the Constitution, Islam was declared to be one of the nation's guiding principles by a constitutional amendment in 1977 and, eleven years later, Islam was estabLished as the state religion.
* India - the RepubLic of India
Population 920 million (1995). Most Indian Muslims are Sunnis; Islam had over 75 million adherents at the time of the 1981 census, making up 11% of the total population.
* Maldives - the Republic of Maldives
Population 245,000 (1995). Islam is the state religion; the Maldivians are Sunni Muslim. The administration of justice is undertaken in accordance with the Shari'a.
* Pakistan - the Islamic Republic of Pakistan
Population 126.6 million (1994). Islam is the state religion in a country where 97% of the population are Muslim. The majority of the population are Sunni Muslims, while about 5% are of the Shi'a sect and only a very small proportion are from other sects. As the very existence of Pakistan lies in the conception of a 'pure' Islamic community opposed to other social concepts, this, coupled with its own internal troubles, has encouraged the retreat into a more rigid Islamic state. Nevertheless, in comparison to the Middle Eastern states, Pakistan's vision of Islam is relatively relaxed.
* Sri Lanka - the Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka
Population 17.9 million (1994). Over 7 1/2% of the Sri Lankan population are Muslim.
Annex IV - the Far East
With reference to the Far East, the country profiles put forward are Brunei, China, Indonesia, Malaysia, and Singapore; countries with significant Muslim populations, such as the Philippines and Thailand have had to be ignored.
* Brunei- the Sultanate of Brunei
Population 285,000 (1994). The official religion of Brunei is Islam and the Sultan is head of the Islamic population. The majority of the Malay population are Sunni Muslims.
* China - the People's Republic of China
Population 1,198.5 million (1994). Since 1977, the Chinese Government has adopted a policy of religious tolerance; the 1982 Constitution states that citizens enjoy freedom of religious belief and that legitimate religious activities are protected. According to Muslim history, Islam was introduced into China in the year 651; there were 17 million adherents in 1994.
* Indonesia - the Republic of Indonesia
Population 179.3 million (1995). That year, 87.2% of Indonesians were Muslims; indeed, it has the world's largest Islamic population, around 150 million adherents. In December 1989, wider powers were granted to Shari'a Courts, giving Muslims authority over their own civil matters such as marriage; Muslims may still choose to appear before a secular court however. The sale of alcohol is legal. However, in the understanding of many Muslims, alcohol is haram (forbidden) and regulating its distribution is seen to be the same as condoning its consumption. There were calls in Indonesia last month for alcoholic drinks to be served only to foreigners, with several provinces of the country banning them for Indonesians. Paradoxically, this move followed a new Indonesian Government regulation which was meant to tighten control over the distribution of alcohol, restricting it though not banning its consumption. Commenting recently on the Islamic law covering alcoholic beverages, the Muslim leader, Hasan Basri (Chairman
of the Indonesian Council of Ulemas), said: Islam has clearly mentioned in the Holy Koran that drinking khamer (alcohol) is contemptible and a satanic deed. We, therefore, are told to stay away from it. Moreover, a hadith (saying of the Prophet)... also reveals that God curses khamer and those who drink it, serve it, sell and buy it, produce it, keep it, store it, carry it and take it from anyone else. This shows that alcoholic beverages are so dangerous that everybody should be afraid of them ... especially in relation to God's curse. Indeed, he went on to add that: There is a significant difference between the two terms (to control and to ban). What we need to do here is ban them, not just control their distribution. We have to put 'ban' first, then 'control'. This implies that alcoholic beverages are forbidden in Indonesia, except in strictly controlled places. Therefore, a decree to ban alcoholic beverages in Indonesia and forbid Indonesians from drinking alcohol, in my opinion, is the only solution. Oth
erwise, we won't be able to rescue our community from that satanic drink.
However, although all citizens are required to state their religion, Indonesia nominally remains a secular state.
* Malaysia - the Federation of Malaysia
Population 20.1 million (1995). Islam is the established religion, but freedom of religious practice is guaranteed. Almost all ethnic Malays are Muslims, representing 53% of the total population in 1985. In August 1996, a year after announcing a plan to use breathalysers to catch Muslims consuming alcohol, the religious authorities have begun its implementation. Muslims found with any amount of alcohol in their blood will be prosecuted under the plan, with offenders brought before the Shari'a Court, the court dealing with religious offenders. A Muslim convicted of drinking alcohol can be fined and/or jailed for six months.
* Singapore - the Republic of Singapore
Population 3 million (1995). 14.9% of the population are Muslim; indeed, Malays, who make up 14.2% of the population, are 99.7% Muslim, and 1/4 of Indians, who constitute 7.2% of the population, are also Muslim. The freedom of worship is guaranteed by the Constitution.
